Does Psychosocial Support Improve the Socio Economic Status of a Marginalized Group? A Case Study of the Transgender Community in Penang, Malaysia
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Published
May 13, 2022
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Abstract
Discrimination, social prejudice and intolerance have dogged the transgender population due to their ‘confused’ and ‘mixed’ gender identity and sexual expression. Local communities especially in most third world countries where gender equality and acceptance of sexual minorities are lagging behind first world nations view them as something of an aberration and misfits particularly from the social and religious contexts. Legal and social protection and safeguards for the transgender community in conservative societies such as Malaysia is virtually nonexistent. This is the inspiration behind this qualitative study which analyses whether psychosocial support given by the older transgender community to their young counterpart has an impact on improving the latter’s socio-economic status. Additionally, this study examines social interaction challenges faced by the youth transgender community primarily due to their marginalization and alienation by the wider heterosexual society. A total of 18 respondents aged between 18 and 40 was selected for this study via a snowballing sampling technique. Results of the study suggest that: 1) psychosocial support given by the older transgender community does assist the young adult transgender to go through their daily life with minimal challenges, and 2) social interaction challenges faced by youth transgender are ironically originating from their own transgender community. Therefore, the study recommends that both government and non-governmental organizations play a more active role in instilling awareness in society about the challenges faced by the transgender community, to stop discrimination against them at all levels and accept them with dignity as fellow human beings. One step towards this is for the Malaysian government to institute legal and social protection for sexual minorities, in this case the transgender community, that would safeguard their interests and protect their human rights as enshrined in the Constitution.
Keywords: Transgender Youth, Psychosocial Support, Discrimination, Social Interaction Challenges, Awareness and Legal Support
References
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Bockting, W. O., Miner, M. H., Romine, R. E. S., Hamilton, A., & Coleman, E. (2013). Stigma, Mental Health, and Resilience in an Online Sample of the US Transgender Population. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 943-951. http://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301241
Bockting, W. O., Robinson, B. E., & Rosser, B. R. S. (1998). Transgender HIV Prevention: A Qualitative Needs Assessment. AIDS Care: Psychological and Socio-medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV, 10(4), 505-525. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540129850124028
Boswell, H. (1991). The Transgender Alternative. Chrysalis: The Journal of Trans-gressive Gender Identities, 1(2), 29-31.
Budge, S. L., Rossman, H. K., & Howard, K. A. S. (2014). Coping and Psychological Distress among Genderqueer Individuals: The Moderating Effect of Social Support. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 8(1), 95-117. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2014.853641
Carver, C. S. (2011). Coping. In R. J. Contrada, & A. Baum (Eds.), The Handbook of Stress Science: Biology, Psychology, and Health (pp. 221-229). New York: Springer Publishing.
Chodzen, G., Hidalgo, M. A., Chen, D., & Garofalo, R. (2019). Minority Stress Factors Associated with Depression and Anxiety among Transgender and Gender-Nonconforming Youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(4), 467-471. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.07.006
Clements-Nolle, K., Marx, R., & Katz, M. (2006). Attempted Suicide among Transgender Persons: The Influence of Gender-based Discrimination and Victimization. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(3), 53-69. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v51n03_04
Coley, J. S. (2018). Theologies of Exclusion: Christian Universities and Discrimination Against Sexual Minorities. Sociological Spectrum, 38(6), 422-437. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2018.1564097
Collumbien, M., Qureshi, A. A., Mayhew, S. H., Rizvi, N., Rabbani, A., Rolfe, B., … Naveed-i-Rahat. (2009). Understanding the Context of Male and Transgender Sex Work Using Peer Ethnography. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 85, ii3–ii7.
Craig, S. L., Austin, A., Rashidi, M., & Adams, M. (2017). Fighting for Survival: The Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Questioning Students in Religious Colleges and Universities. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 29(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2016.1260512
Creswell, J. W. (2010). Mapping the Developing Landscape of Mixed Methods Research. In A. Tashakkori, & C. Teddlie (Eds.), SAGE Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social & Behavioural Research (2nd ed., pp. 45-68). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publication.
DeAlwis, C., & David, M. K. (2010). Language and Identity of Malay Teenage Mak Nyah (Transvestites) in Kuching. JATI-Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 15, 39-44. Retrieved from https://jati.um.edu.my/index.php/jati/article/view/6097
Denzin, N. K. (2012). Triangulation. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 6(2), 80-88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689812437186
Factor, R., & Rothblum, E. (2008). Exploring Gender Identity and Community among Three Groups of Transgender Individuals in the United States: MTFs, FTMs, and Genderqueers. Health Sociology Review, 17(3), 235-253. https://doi.org/10.5172/hesr.451.17.3.235
Fraser, R. T. D., & Lima, I. M. S. O. (2012). Intersex and the Right to Identity: A Discourse on the Civil Record of Intersex Children. Journal of Human Growth and Development, 22(3), 358-366. Retrieved from http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-12822012000300012
Frost, D. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2012). Measuring Community Connectedness among Diverse Sexual Minority Populations. The Journal of Sex Research, 49(1), 36-49. http://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.565427
Goldblum, P., Testa, R. J., Pflum, S., Hendricks, M. L., Bradford, J., & Bongar, B. (2012). The Relationship between Gender-based Victimization and Suicide Attempts in Transgender People. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 468–475. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029605
Gonzalez, C. A., Bockting, W. O., Beckman, L. J., & Durán, R. E. (2012). Agentic and Communal Personality Traits: Their Associations with Depression and Resilience among Transgender Women. Sex Roles, 67(9-10), 528–543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0202-y
Graber, J. A., & Archibald, A. B. (2001). Psychosocial Change at Puberty and Beyond: Understanding Adolescent Sexuality and Sexual Orientation. In A. R. D’Augelli, & C. J. Patterson (Eds.), Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identities and Youth: Psychological Perspectives (pp. 3-26). New York: Oxford University Press.
Lakey, B., & Orehek, E. (2011). Relational Regulation Theory: A New Approach to Explain the Link between Perceived Social Support and Mental Health. Psychological Review, 118(3), 482-495. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0023477
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674-697. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
Miller, L. R., & Grollman, E. A. (2015). The Social Costs of Gender Nonconformity for Transgender Adults: Implications for Discrimination and Health. Sociological Forum, 30(3), 809-831. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12193
Nesmith, A. A., Burton, D. L., & Cosgrove, T. J. (1999). Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Youth and Young Adults: Social Support in their own Words. Journal of Homosexuality, 37(1), 95-108. http://doi.org/
10.1300/J082v37n01_07
Nordmarken, S. (2014). Becoming Ever More Monstrous: Feeling Transgender In-Betweenness. Qualitative Inquiry, 20(1), 37-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800413508531
Nuttbrock, L., Hwahng, S., Bockting, W., Rosenblum, A., Mason, M., Marci, M., & Becker, J. (2010). Psychiatric Impact of Gender-related Abuse Across the Life Course of Male-to-Female Transgender Persons. Journal of Sex Research, 47(1), 12-23. http://doi.org/10.1080/00224490903062258
Reisner, S. L., Greytak, E. A., Parsons, J. T., & Ybarra, M. L. (2015). Gender Minority Social Stress in Adolescence: Disparities in Adolescent Bullying and Substance Use by Gender Identity. The Journal of Sex Research, 52(3), 243-256. http://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.886321
Sánchez, F. J., & Vilain, E. (2009). Collective Self-esteem as a Coping Resource for Male-to-Female Transsexuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(1), 202–209. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014573
Sausa, L. A., Keatley, J., & Operario, D. (2007). Perceived Risks and Benefits of Sex Work among Transgender Women of Color in San Francisco. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(6), 768-777. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9210-3
Savin-Williams, R. C. (2011). Identity Development among Sexual-minority Youth. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of Identity Theory and Research (pp. 671-689). New York: Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_28
Scott, H. M., Pollack, L., Rebchook, G. M., Huebner, D. M., Peterson, J., & Kegeles, S. M. (2014). Peer Social Support is Associated with Recent HIV Testing among Young Black Men who have Sex with Men. AIDS and Behavior, 18(5), 913–920. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-013-0608-8
Sellers, M. D. (2014). Discrimination and the Transgender Population: Analysis of the Functionality of Local Government Policies that Protect Gender Identity. Administration & Society, 46(1), 70-86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399712451894
Simons, L., Schrager, S. M., Clark, L. F., Belzer, M., & Olson, J. (2013). Parental Support and Mental Health among Transgender Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(6), 791-793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.07.019
Singh, A. A., Hays, D. G., & Watson, L. S. (2011). Strength in the Face of Adversity: Resilience Strategies of Transgender Individuals. Journal of Counselling & Development, 89(1), 20-27. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2011.tb00057.x
Stone, A. L. (2009). More than Adding a T: American Lesbian and Gay Activists’ Attitudes towards Transgender Inclusion. Sexualities, 12(3), 334-354. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460709103894
Su, D., Irwin, J. A., Fisher, C., Ramos, A., Kelley, M., Mendoza, D. A. R., & Coleman, J. D. (2016). Mental Health Disparities within the LGBT Population: A Comparison between Transgender and Nontransgender Individuals. Transgender Health, 1(1), 12-20. https://doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2015.0001
Super, J. T., & Jacobson, L. (2011). Religious Abuse: Implications for Counseling Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Individuals. Journal of LGBTQ Issues in Counseling, 5(3-4), 180-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2011.632739
Terrell, S. R. (2012). Mixed-Methods Research Methodologies. The Qualitative Report, 17(1), 254-280. http://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2012.1819
Testa, R. J., Jimenez, C. L., & Rankin, S. (2014). Risk and Resilience during Transgender Identity Development: The Effects of Awareness and Engagement with other Transgender People on Affect. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 18(1), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2013.805177
Testa, R. J., Sciacca, L. M., Wang, F., Hendricks, M. L., Goldblum, P., Bradford, J., & Bongar, B. (2012). Effects of Violence on Transgender People. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 452–459. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029604
Wilson, E. C., Iverson, E., Garofalo, R., & Belzer, M. (2012). Parental Support and Condom Use among Transgender Female Youth. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 23(4), 306-317. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jana.2011.09.001
Wolf, E. C. M., & Dew, B. J. (2012). Understanding Risk Factors Contributing to Substance Use among MTF Transgender Persons. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 6(4), 237-256. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2012.727743
Bockting, W. O., Miner, M. H., Romine, R. E. S., Hamilton, A., & Coleman, E. (2013). Stigma, Mental Health, and Resilience in an Online Sample of the US Transgender Population. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 943-951. http://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301241
Bockting, W. O., Robinson, B. E., & Rosser, B. R. S. (1998). Transgender HIV Prevention: A Qualitative Needs Assessment. AIDS Care: Psychological and Socio-medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV, 10(4), 505-525. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540129850124028
Boswell, H. (1991). The Transgender Alternative. Chrysalis: The Journal of Trans-gressive Gender Identities, 1(2), 29-31.
Budge, S. L., Rossman, H. K., & Howard, K. A. S. (2014). Coping and Psychological Distress among Genderqueer Individuals: The Moderating Effect of Social Support. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 8(1), 95-117. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2014.853641
Carver, C. S. (2011). Coping. In R. J. Contrada, & A. Baum (Eds.), The Handbook of Stress Science: Biology, Psychology, and Health (pp. 221-229). New York: Springer Publishing.
Chodzen, G., Hidalgo, M. A., Chen, D., & Garofalo, R. (2019). Minority Stress Factors Associated with Depression and Anxiety among Transgender and Gender-Nonconforming Youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(4), 467-471. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.07.006
Clements-Nolle, K., Marx, R., & Katz, M. (2006). Attempted Suicide among Transgender Persons: The Influence of Gender-based Discrimination and Victimization. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(3), 53-69. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v51n03_04
Coley, J. S. (2018). Theologies of Exclusion: Christian Universities and Discrimination Against Sexual Minorities. Sociological Spectrum, 38(6), 422-437. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2018.1564097
Collumbien, M., Qureshi, A. A., Mayhew, S. H., Rizvi, N., Rabbani, A., Rolfe, B., … Naveed-i-Rahat. (2009). Understanding the Context of Male and Transgender Sex Work Using Peer Ethnography. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 85, ii3–ii7.
Craig, S. L., Austin, A., Rashidi, M., & Adams, M. (2017). Fighting for Survival: The Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Questioning Students in Religious Colleges and Universities. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 29(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2016.1260512
Creswell, J. W. (2010). Mapping the Developing Landscape of Mixed Methods Research. In A. Tashakkori, & C. Teddlie (Eds.), SAGE Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social & Behavioural Research (2nd ed., pp. 45-68). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publication.
DeAlwis, C., & David, M. K. (2010). Language and Identity of Malay Teenage Mak Nyah (Transvestites) in Kuching. JATI-Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 15, 39-44. Retrieved from https://jati.um.edu.my/index.php/jati/article/view/6097
Denzin, N. K. (2012). Triangulation. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 6(2), 80-88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689812437186
Factor, R., & Rothblum, E. (2008). Exploring Gender Identity and Community among Three Groups of Transgender Individuals in the United States: MTFs, FTMs, and Genderqueers. Health Sociology Review, 17(3), 235-253. https://doi.org/10.5172/hesr.451.17.3.235
Fraser, R. T. D., & Lima, I. M. S. O. (2012). Intersex and the Right to Identity: A Discourse on the Civil Record of Intersex Children. Journal of Human Growth and Development, 22(3), 358-366. Retrieved from http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-12822012000300012
Frost, D. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2012). Measuring Community Connectedness among Diverse Sexual Minority Populations. The Journal of Sex Research, 49(1), 36-49. http://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.565427
Goldblum, P., Testa, R. J., Pflum, S., Hendricks, M. L., Bradford, J., & Bongar, B. (2012). The Relationship between Gender-based Victimization and Suicide Attempts in Transgender People. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 468–475. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029605
Gonzalez, C. A., Bockting, W. O., Beckman, L. J., & Durán, R. E. (2012). Agentic and Communal Personality Traits: Their Associations with Depression and Resilience among Transgender Women. Sex Roles, 67(9-10), 528–543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0202-y
Graber, J. A., & Archibald, A. B. (2001). Psychosocial Change at Puberty and Beyond: Understanding Adolescent Sexuality and Sexual Orientation. In A. R. D’Augelli, & C. J. Patterson (Eds.), Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identities and Youth: Psychological Perspectives (pp. 3-26). New York: Oxford University Press.
Lakey, B., & Orehek, E. (2011). Relational Regulation Theory: A New Approach to Explain the Link between Perceived Social Support and Mental Health. Psychological Review, 118(3), 482-495. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0023477
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674-697. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
Miller, L. R., & Grollman, E. A. (2015). The Social Costs of Gender Nonconformity for Transgender Adults: Implications for Discrimination and Health. Sociological Forum, 30(3), 809-831. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12193
Nesmith, A. A., Burton, D. L., & Cosgrove, T. J. (1999). Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Youth and Young Adults: Social Support in their own Words. Journal of Homosexuality, 37(1), 95-108. http://doi.org/
10.1300/J082v37n01_07
Nordmarken, S. (2014). Becoming Ever More Monstrous: Feeling Transgender In-Betweenness. Qualitative Inquiry, 20(1), 37-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800413508531
Nuttbrock, L., Hwahng, S., Bockting, W., Rosenblum, A., Mason, M., Marci, M., & Becker, J. (2010). Psychiatric Impact of Gender-related Abuse Across the Life Course of Male-to-Female Transgender Persons. Journal of Sex Research, 47(1), 12-23. http://doi.org/10.1080/00224490903062258
Reisner, S. L., Greytak, E. A., Parsons, J. T., & Ybarra, M. L. (2015). Gender Minority Social Stress in Adolescence: Disparities in Adolescent Bullying and Substance Use by Gender Identity. The Journal of Sex Research, 52(3), 243-256. http://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.886321
Sánchez, F. J., & Vilain, E. (2009). Collective Self-esteem as a Coping Resource for Male-to-Female Transsexuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(1), 202–209. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014573
Sausa, L. A., Keatley, J., & Operario, D. (2007). Perceived Risks and Benefits of Sex Work among Transgender Women of Color in San Francisco. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(6), 768-777. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9210-3
Savin-Williams, R. C. (2011). Identity Development among Sexual-minority Youth. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of Identity Theory and Research (pp. 671-689). New York: Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_28
Scott, H. M., Pollack, L., Rebchook, G. M., Huebner, D. M., Peterson, J., & Kegeles, S. M. (2014). Peer Social Support is Associated with Recent HIV Testing among Young Black Men who have Sex with Men. AIDS and Behavior, 18(5), 913–920. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-013-0608-8
Sellers, M. D. (2014). Discrimination and the Transgender Population: Analysis of the Functionality of Local Government Policies that Protect Gender Identity. Administration & Society, 46(1), 70-86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399712451894
Simons, L., Schrager, S. M., Clark, L. F., Belzer, M., & Olson, J. (2013). Parental Support and Mental Health among Transgender Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(6), 791-793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.07.019
Singh, A. A., Hays, D. G., & Watson, L. S. (2011). Strength in the Face of Adversity: Resilience Strategies of Transgender Individuals. Journal of Counselling & Development, 89(1), 20-27. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2011.tb00057.x
Stone, A. L. (2009). More than Adding a T: American Lesbian and Gay Activists’ Attitudes towards Transgender Inclusion. Sexualities, 12(3), 334-354. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460709103894
Su, D., Irwin, J. A., Fisher, C., Ramos, A., Kelley, M., Mendoza, D. A. R., & Coleman, J. D. (2016). Mental Health Disparities within the LGBT Population: A Comparison between Transgender and Nontransgender Individuals. Transgender Health, 1(1), 12-20. https://doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2015.0001
Super, J. T., & Jacobson, L. (2011). Religious Abuse: Implications for Counseling Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Individuals. Journal of LGBTQ Issues in Counseling, 5(3-4), 180-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2011.632739
Terrell, S. R. (2012). Mixed-Methods Research Methodologies. The Qualitative Report, 17(1), 254-280. http://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2012.1819
Testa, R. J., Jimenez, C. L., & Rankin, S. (2014). Risk and Resilience during Transgender Identity Development: The Effects of Awareness and Engagement with other Transgender People on Affect. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 18(1), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2013.805177
Testa, R. J., Sciacca, L. M., Wang, F., Hendricks, M. L., Goldblum, P., Bradford, J., & Bongar, B. (2012). Effects of Violence on Transgender People. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 452–459. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029604
Wilson, E. C., Iverson, E., Garofalo, R., & Belzer, M. (2012). Parental Support and Condom Use among Transgender Female Youth. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 23(4), 306-317. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jana.2011.09.001
Wolf, E. C. M., & Dew, B. J. (2012). Understanding Risk Factors Contributing to Substance Use among MTF Transgender Persons. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 6(4), 237-256. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2012.727743
Section
Research Articles
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How to Cite
VADEVELU, Kumarashwaran et al.
Does Psychosocial Support Improve the Socio Economic Status of a Marginalized Group? A Case Study of the Transgender Community in Penang, Malaysia.
Journal of Community Development Research (Humanities and Social Sciences), [S.l.], v. 15, n. 2, p. 98-110, may 2022.
ISSN 2985-0231.
Available at: <https://www.journal.nu.ac.th/JCDR/article/view/Vol-15-No-2-2022-98-110>. Date accessed: 26 apr. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.14456/jcdr-hs.2022.18.