A Search for Thai Hospitality Dimensions in Hospitality and Tourism Industry
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Published
Apr 16, 2020
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Abstract
One of the factors influencing tourists to revisit a destination is the hospitality of staff who come into direct or indirect contact with tourists. It is the quality of these contacts and interactions that will give a hospitality business an edge over its competitors. The objectives of this study were to identify the key characteristics of Thai hospitality from the perspectives of tourists and to classify the dimensions of hospitality attributes in the Thai cultural context. A mixed methods research design was used. A sample of 12 international tourists participated in an in-depth interview and a survey questionnaire with 1,200 complete samples were collected. Content analysis and domain analysis were used to analyse the Thai hospitality characteristics. Factor analysis was used to define the underlying structure of Thai hospitality.
The results identified 38 Thai hospitality characteristics from qualitative. Based on the results of factor analysis, Thai hospitality can be conceptualised as a seven-dimension construct that is important and recognised for international tourists in Thailand. These seven factors were identified as follows: thoughtfulness, modesty, compromise, respect of culture, enthusiasm and calibre. The identification of these characteristics and dimensions are valuable for the Thai hospitality and tourism industry as guidelines for shaping the behavior of service staff whose interactions are with tourists.
Keywords: Thai Hospitality, Thai Hospitality Dimensions, Thai Cultural Values, Thai Hospitality Characteristics
References
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Alexandris, K., Kouthouris, C., & Meligdis, A. (2006). Increasing Customers’ Loyalty in a Skiing Resort: The Contribution of Place Attachment and Service Quality. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18(5), 414-425.
Baker, D. A., & Crompton, J. L. (2000). Quality, Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(3), 785-804. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00108-5
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Bhattacharya, M., Gibson, D. E., & Doty, D. H. (2005). The Effects of Flexibility in Employee Skills, Employee Behaviors, and Human Resource Practices on Firm Performance. Journal of Management, 31(4), 622-640.
Chanthanom, S. (1998). Globalisation of the Golden Triangle: Cultural Transformation in Burma, Laos and Thailand. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.
Chaston, I. (2012). Strategy for Sustainable Competitive Advantage: Surviving Declining Demand China’s Global Development. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203121122
Chebat, J. C., & Kollias, P. (2000). The Impact of Empowerment on Customer Contact Employees’ Roles in Service Organisations. Journal of Service Research, 3(1), 66-81.
Chen, X. P., & Chen, C. C. (2004). On the Intricacies of the Chinese Guanxi: A Process Model of Guanxi Development. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21(3), 305-324.
Cornwell, B., Cui, C. C., Mitchell, V., Schlegelmilch, B., Dzulkiflee, A., & Chan, J. (2005). A Cross-Cultural Study of the Role of Religion in Consumers’ Ethical Positions. International Marketing Review, 22(5), 531-546.
Crick, A. P., & Spencer, A. (2011). Hospitality Quality: New Directions and New Challenges. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 23(4), 463-478. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596111111129986
D’Andrade, R. (2008). A Study of Personal and Cultural Values: American, Japanese, and Vietnamese. USA.: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: 10.1057/9780230612099
Doran, C. J., & Natale, S. M. (2011). ἐμπάθɛια (Empatheia) and Caritas: The Role of Religion in Fair Trade Consumption. Journal of Business Ethics, 98(1), 1-15.
Field, A. (2013). Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics (4th ed.). London: SAGE.
Gallarza, M. G., Arteaga, F., Chiappa, G. D., & Gil-Saura, I. (2015). Value Dimensions in Consumers’ Experience: Combining the Intra-and Inter-Variable Approaches in the Hospitality Sector. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 47, 140-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.03.007
Gerwin, D. (1993). Manufacturing Flexibility: A Strategic Perspective. Management Science, 39(4), 395-410.
Güçer, E., Pelit, E., Demirdağ, Ş. A., & Arslanturk, Y. (2016). The Effects of Managers’ Business Ethics Applications on Employees’ Job Satisfaction: A Study on Hotels in Turkey. Business Management and Strategy, 7(1), 206-234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5296/bms.v7i1.9527
Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate Data Analysis with Reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Henderson, K. A., & Bialeschki, M. D. (2002). Evaluating Leisure Services: Making Enlightened Decisions (2nd ed.). State College, PA: Venture Publishing.
Heskett, J. L., Jones, T. O., Loveman, G. W., Sasser, Jr. W. E., & Schlesinger, L. A. (1994). Putting the Service-Profit Chain to Work. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/38b8/a2c5f3123f3b9b9e2b82fab67c01e20c39fe.pdf
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Hofstede, G. (2004). Cultures and Organisation: Software of the Mind (2nd ed.). London: Mcgraw-Hill.
Hsu, C. H. C., & Huang, S. (2016). Reconfiguring Chinese Cultural Values and their Tourism Implications. Tourism Management, 54, 230-242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.11.011
Jackson, P. A. (2003). Buddhadasa: Theravada Buddhism and the Modernist Reform in Thailand. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm Books.
Jaw, B.-S., Ling, Y.-H., Wang, C. Y.-P., & Chang, W.-C. (2007). The Impact of Culture on Chinese Employees’ Work Values. Personnel Review, 36(1), 128-144.
Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An Index of Factorial Simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31-36.
Kaw, E. (2005). Buddhism and Education in Burma: Varying Conditions for a Social Ethos in the Path to “Nibbana”. (Doctoral dissertation). Princeton University, USA.
King, C. (1985). Service Quality Assurance is Different. Quality Progress, 18(6), 14-18.
King, C. A., & Garey, J. (1997). Relational Quality in Service Encounters. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 16(1), 39-63.
King, W. L. (1964). In the Hope of Nibbana. USA: Open Count Publishing.
Knutson, T. J. (2004). Thai Cultural Values: Smiles and Sawasdee as Implications for Intercultural Communication Effectiveness. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 33(3), 147-157.
Komin, S. (1978). Some Empirical Evidence of Thai Values and Personality. The Thai Journal of Development Administration, 3, 271-292.
Komin, S. (1989). Social Dimensions of Industrialisation in Thailand. Bangkok: Research Center, NIDA.
Komin, S. (1990). Culture and Work-Related Values in Thai Organisations. International Journal of Psychology, 25(3-6), 681-704.
Komin, S. (1991). Psychology of the Thai People: Values and Behavioral Patterns. Bangkok: National Institute of Development Administration.
Kumar, R. (2005). Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications.
Kutcher, E. J., Bragger, J. D., Rodriguez-Srednicki, O., & Masco, J. L. (2010). The Role of Religiosity in Stress, Job Attitudes, and Organisational Citizenship Behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 95, 319-337.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Thousand Oaks, United States: Sage Publications.
Lu, C., Berchoux, C., Marek, M., & Chen, B. (2015). Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction: Qualitative Research Implications for Luxury Hotels. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 9(2), 168-182.
Lymperopoulos, C., Chaniotakis, E. I., & Soureli, M. (2006). The Importance of Service Quality in Bank Selection for Mortgage Loans. Managing Service Quality, 16(4), 365-379.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224-253.
Mattila, A. S. (1999). The Role of Cultural and Purchase Motivation in Service Encounter Evaluations. Journal of Services Marketing, 13(4/5), 376-389.
Miller, W. L., & Crabtree, B. F. (2004). Depth Interviewing. In S. N. Hesse-Biber, & P. Leavy (Eds.), Approaches to Qualitative Research: A Reader on Theory and Practice (pp. 185-202). New York: Oxford University Press.
Ng, S. I., Lee, J. A., & Soutar, G. N. (2007). Tourists’ Intention to Visit a Country: The Impact of Cultural Distance. Tourism Management, 28(6), 1497-1506.
Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Reuland, R., Choudry, J., & Fagel, A. (1985). Research in the Field of Hospitality. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 4(4), 141-146.
Risseeuw, C. (2017). On Family, Friendship and the Need for ‘Cultural Fuss’: Changing Trajectories of Family and Friendship in the Netherlands. In C. Risseeuw, & M. van Raalte (Eds.), Conceptualising Friendship in Time and Place (pp. 268-284). Boston: Brill Rodopi.
Sánchez, R. (1995). Strategic Flexibility in Product Competition. Strategic Management Journal, 16(S1), 135-159.
Schwartz, S. (1994). Cultural Dimensions of Values: Towards an Understanding of National Differences. In U. Kim, H. C. Trandis, C. Kagiticibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method and Application (pp. 84-110). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Shawyun, T., & Tanchaisak, K. (2005). Core Values of Thai Undergraduates Revisited in 2005: A Case Study of Assumption University. APHEIT Journal, 12(1), 71-84.
Smith, P. B., Peterson, M. F., & Schwartz, S. H. (2002). Cultural Values, Sources of Guidance, and their Relevance to Managerial Behavior: A 47-Nation Study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33(2), 188-208.
Stauss, B., & Mang, P. (1999). “Culture Shocks” in Inter-Cultural Service Encounters? Journal of Services Marketing, 13(4/5), 329-346.
Steers, R. M. (1975). Problems in the Measurement of Organisational Effectiveness. Administrative Sciencie, 20(4), 546-558.
Suárez, F., Cusumano, M., & Fine, C. (1995). An Empirical Study of Flexibility in Manufacturing. Sloan Management Review, 37(1), 25-32.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using Multivariate Statistics (6th ed.). Harlow: Pearson.
Tangkuptanon, P. (2001). The Influence of Buddhism on Thai Culture: A Study of Sekhiyavatta in Patimokkha on Thai Conduct and Etiquette. (Master’s thesis). Mahidol University, Bangkok.
Tsang, N. K. (2011). Dimensions of Chinese Culture Values in Relation to Service Provision in Hospitality and Tourism Industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(3), 670-679.
Tsang, N. K. F., & Ap, J. (2007). Tourists’ Perceptions of Relational Quality Service Attributes: A Cross-Cultural Study. Journal of Travel Research, 45(3), 355-363.
Turkay, O., & Sengul, S. (2014). Employee Behaviors Creating Customer Satisfaction: A Comparative Case Study on Service Encounters At Hotel. European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation, 5(2), 25-46.
Wall, W. P., & Walsh, J. C. (2011). Cross Cultural Management and Communication in the Global Healthcare Marketplace: Is Thai Hospitality Enough? Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 37(2), 1-13.
Winsted, K. F. (1997). The Service Experience in Two Cultures: A Behavioral Perspective. Journal of Retailing, 73(3), 337-360.
Wu, C. H.-J., & Liang, R.-D. (2009). Effect of Experiential Value on Customer Satisfaction with Service Encounters in Luxury-Hotels Restaurants. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(4), 586-593.
Yan, J., & Sorenson, R. L. (2004). The Influence of Confucian Ideology on Conflict in Chinese Family Business. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 4(1), 5-17.
Yau, O. H. (1988). Chinese Cultural Values: Their Dimensions and Marketing Implications. European Journal of marketing, 22(5), 44-57.
Yuksel, A. (2001). Managing Customer Satisfaction and Retention: A Case of Tourist Destinations, Turkey. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 7(2), 153-168.
Alexandris, K., Kouthouris, C., & Meligdis, A. (2006). Increasing Customers’ Loyalty in a Skiing Resort: The Contribution of Place Attachment and Service Quality. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18(5), 414-425.
Baker, D. A., & Crompton, J. L. (2000). Quality, Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(3), 785-804. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00108-5
Barney, J. (1991). Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage. Journal of Management, 17(1), 99-120. DOI: 10.1177/014920639101700108
Bhattacharya, M., Gibson, D. E., & Doty, D. H. (2005). The Effects of Flexibility in Employee Skills, Employee Behaviors, and Human Resource Practices on Firm Performance. Journal of Management, 31(4), 622-640.
Chanthanom, S. (1998). Globalisation of the Golden Triangle: Cultural Transformation in Burma, Laos and Thailand. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.
Chaston, I. (2012). Strategy for Sustainable Competitive Advantage: Surviving Declining Demand China’s Global Development. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203121122
Chebat, J. C., & Kollias, P. (2000). The Impact of Empowerment on Customer Contact Employees’ Roles in Service Organisations. Journal of Service Research, 3(1), 66-81.
Chen, X. P., & Chen, C. C. (2004). On the Intricacies of the Chinese Guanxi: A Process Model of Guanxi Development. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21(3), 305-324.
Cornwell, B., Cui, C. C., Mitchell, V., Schlegelmilch, B., Dzulkiflee, A., & Chan, J. (2005). A Cross-Cultural Study of the Role of Religion in Consumers’ Ethical Positions. International Marketing Review, 22(5), 531-546.
Crick, A. P., & Spencer, A. (2011). Hospitality Quality: New Directions and New Challenges. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 23(4), 463-478. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596111111129986
D’Andrade, R. (2008). A Study of Personal and Cultural Values: American, Japanese, and Vietnamese. USA.: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: 10.1057/9780230612099
Doran, C. J., & Natale, S. M. (2011). ἐμπάθɛια (Empatheia) and Caritas: The Role of Religion in Fair Trade Consumption. Journal of Business Ethics, 98(1), 1-15.
Field, A. (2013). Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics (4th ed.). London: SAGE.
Gallarza, M. G., Arteaga, F., Chiappa, G. D., & Gil-Saura, I. (2015). Value Dimensions in Consumers’ Experience: Combining the Intra-and Inter-Variable Approaches in the Hospitality Sector. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 47, 140-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.03.007
Gerwin, D. (1993). Manufacturing Flexibility: A Strategic Perspective. Management Science, 39(4), 395-410.
Güçer, E., Pelit, E., Demirdağ, Ş. A., & Arslanturk, Y. (2016). The Effects of Managers’ Business Ethics Applications on Employees’ Job Satisfaction: A Study on Hotels in Turkey. Business Management and Strategy, 7(1), 206-234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5296/bms.v7i1.9527
Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate Data Analysis with Reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Henderson, K. A., & Bialeschki, M. D. (2002). Evaluating Leisure Services: Making Enlightened Decisions (2nd ed.). State College, PA: Venture Publishing.
Heskett, J. L., Jones, T. O., Loveman, G. W., Sasser, Jr. W. E., & Schlesinger, L. A. (1994). Putting the Service-Profit Chain to Work. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/38b8/a2c5f3123f3b9b9e2b82fab67c01e20c39fe.pdf
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Beverly Hills, C.A.: Sage.
Hofstede, G. (2004). Cultures and Organisation: Software of the Mind (2nd ed.). London: Mcgraw-Hill.
Hsu, C. H. C., & Huang, S. (2016). Reconfiguring Chinese Cultural Values and their Tourism Implications. Tourism Management, 54, 230-242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.11.011
Jackson, P. A. (2003). Buddhadasa: Theravada Buddhism and the Modernist Reform in Thailand. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm Books.
Jaw, B.-S., Ling, Y.-H., Wang, C. Y.-P., & Chang, W.-C. (2007). The Impact of Culture on Chinese Employees’ Work Values. Personnel Review, 36(1), 128-144.
Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An Index of Factorial Simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31-36.
Kaw, E. (2005). Buddhism and Education in Burma: Varying Conditions for a Social Ethos in the Path to “Nibbana”. (Doctoral dissertation). Princeton University, USA.
King, C. (1985). Service Quality Assurance is Different. Quality Progress, 18(6), 14-18.
King, C. A., & Garey, J. (1997). Relational Quality in Service Encounters. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 16(1), 39-63.
King, W. L. (1964). In the Hope of Nibbana. USA: Open Count Publishing.
Knutson, T. J. (2004). Thai Cultural Values: Smiles and Sawasdee as Implications for Intercultural Communication Effectiveness. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 33(3), 147-157.
Komin, S. (1978). Some Empirical Evidence of Thai Values and Personality. The Thai Journal of Development Administration, 3, 271-292.
Komin, S. (1989). Social Dimensions of Industrialisation in Thailand. Bangkok: Research Center, NIDA.
Komin, S. (1990). Culture and Work-Related Values in Thai Organisations. International Journal of Psychology, 25(3-6), 681-704.
Komin, S. (1991). Psychology of the Thai People: Values and Behavioral Patterns. Bangkok: National Institute of Development Administration.
Kumar, R. (2005). Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications.
Kutcher, E. J., Bragger, J. D., Rodriguez-Srednicki, O., & Masco, J. L. (2010). The Role of Religiosity in Stress, Job Attitudes, and Organisational Citizenship Behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 95, 319-337.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Thousand Oaks, United States: Sage Publications.
Lu, C., Berchoux, C., Marek, M., & Chen, B. (2015). Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction: Qualitative Research Implications for Luxury Hotels. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 9(2), 168-182.
Lymperopoulos, C., Chaniotakis, E. I., & Soureli, M. (2006). The Importance of Service Quality in Bank Selection for Mortgage Loans. Managing Service Quality, 16(4), 365-379.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224-253.
Mattila, A. S. (1999). The Role of Cultural and Purchase Motivation in Service Encounter Evaluations. Journal of Services Marketing, 13(4/5), 376-389.
Miller, W. L., & Crabtree, B. F. (2004). Depth Interviewing. In S. N. Hesse-Biber, & P. Leavy (Eds.), Approaches to Qualitative Research: A Reader on Theory and Practice (pp. 185-202). New York: Oxford University Press.
Ng, S. I., Lee, J. A., & Soutar, G. N. (2007). Tourists’ Intention to Visit a Country: The Impact of Cultural Distance. Tourism Management, 28(6), 1497-1506.
Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Reuland, R., Choudry, J., & Fagel, A. (1985). Research in the Field of Hospitality. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 4(4), 141-146.
Risseeuw, C. (2017). On Family, Friendship and the Need for ‘Cultural Fuss’: Changing Trajectories of Family and Friendship in the Netherlands. In C. Risseeuw, & M. van Raalte (Eds.), Conceptualising Friendship in Time and Place (pp. 268-284). Boston: Brill Rodopi.
Sánchez, R. (1995). Strategic Flexibility in Product Competition. Strategic Management Journal, 16(S1), 135-159.
Schwartz, S. (1994). Cultural Dimensions of Values: Towards an Understanding of National Differences. In U. Kim, H. C. Trandis, C. Kagiticibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method and Application (pp. 84-110). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Shawyun, T., & Tanchaisak, K. (2005). Core Values of Thai Undergraduates Revisited in 2005: A Case Study of Assumption University. APHEIT Journal, 12(1), 71-84.
Smith, P. B., Peterson, M. F., & Schwartz, S. H. (2002). Cultural Values, Sources of Guidance, and their Relevance to Managerial Behavior: A 47-Nation Study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33(2), 188-208.
Stauss, B., & Mang, P. (1999). “Culture Shocks” in Inter-Cultural Service Encounters? Journal of Services Marketing, 13(4/5), 329-346.
Steers, R. M. (1975). Problems in the Measurement of Organisational Effectiveness. Administrative Sciencie, 20(4), 546-558.
Suárez, F., Cusumano, M., & Fine, C. (1995). An Empirical Study of Flexibility in Manufacturing. Sloan Management Review, 37(1), 25-32.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using Multivariate Statistics (6th ed.). Harlow: Pearson.
Tangkuptanon, P. (2001). The Influence of Buddhism on Thai Culture: A Study of Sekhiyavatta in Patimokkha on Thai Conduct and Etiquette. (Master’s thesis). Mahidol University, Bangkok.
Tsang, N. K. (2011). Dimensions of Chinese Culture Values in Relation to Service Provision in Hospitality and Tourism Industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(3), 670-679.
Tsang, N. K. F., & Ap, J. (2007). Tourists’ Perceptions of Relational Quality Service Attributes: A Cross-Cultural Study. Journal of Travel Research, 45(3), 355-363.
Turkay, O., & Sengul, S. (2014). Employee Behaviors Creating Customer Satisfaction: A Comparative Case Study on Service Encounters At Hotel. European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation, 5(2), 25-46.
Wall, W. P., & Walsh, J. C. (2011). Cross Cultural Management and Communication in the Global Healthcare Marketplace: Is Thai Hospitality Enough? Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 37(2), 1-13.
Winsted, K. F. (1997). The Service Experience in Two Cultures: A Behavioral Perspective. Journal of Retailing, 73(3), 337-360.
Wu, C. H.-J., & Liang, R.-D. (2009). Effect of Experiential Value on Customer Satisfaction with Service Encounters in Luxury-Hotels Restaurants. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(4), 586-593.
Yan, J., & Sorenson, R. L. (2004). The Influence of Confucian Ideology on Conflict in Chinese Family Business. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 4(1), 5-17.
Yau, O. H. (1988). Chinese Cultural Values: Their Dimensions and Marketing Implications. European Journal of marketing, 22(5), 44-57.
Yuksel, A. (2001). Managing Customer Satisfaction and Retention: A Case of Tourist Destinations, Turkey. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 7(2), 153-168.
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Research Articles
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How to Cite
DABPHET, Siripen.
A Search for Thai Hospitality Dimensions in Hospitality and Tourism Industry.
Journal of Community Development Research (Humanities and Social Sciences), [S.l.], v. 13, n. 2, p. 42-54, apr. 2020.
ISSN 2985-0231.
Available at: <https://www.journal.nu.ac.th/JCDR/article/view/Vol-13-No-2-2020-42-54>. Date accessed: 25 apr. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.14456/jcdr-hs.2020.14.